How do people become empowered? A case study of union activists. Human Relations, Vol. 53, No. 10, 1357-1383 (2000)

"Taking all these definitions into account, we define empowerment as a
developmental process that promotes an active approach to problem solving,
increased political understanding, and an increased ability to exercise control
in the environment."


according to Kieffer, 1984 there are four stages to empowerment

the era of entry - the era of advancement - era of incorporation - the era of commitment